Phat Fat Mitochondrial Energetics: Mobilization v. Accumulation

Adipose is Alive

In ancestral times, adipose stores may have determined longevity and survival past harsh cold winters. My ancestors moved from northern China 8-10+ generations ago to the mountainous areas of Taiwan (according to my dad several hundred years ago). I suppose those who didn't live past the impoverished seasons where food resources were scarce would not have made it, nor would their genes. I can thank them for my persistent fat stores *haa*. Adipose tissue is an endocrine gland which is know to secrete hormones such as leptin and adiponectin to control hunger, body energy balance and energy expenditure. These hormones are involved directly with mitochondrial biogenesis as well, in other words the production and destruction of the mini powerhouses found in all cells (except perhaps glycolytic-dependent cancer cells, which I think are all of them).

Whole body energy balance are determined by many factors, including most importantly:
1) demand
2) diet
3) d*ng hormones (or lack of)



All Organs Sync For Survival

Our brain coordinates many of the hormones that either mobilize or store adipose, e.g. fat. The brain includes the hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, forebrain, hindbrain, midbrain and our senses for perception (ears, eyes, nose, taste, temperature, barometric pressure, etc). For example, insulin is triggered cephalically (via the brain): by tasting sweetness whether artificial or real, by smelling food, seeing food or even imagining food. Hearing? Hearing the neighborhood ice cream truck as a kid?




Humans Killed for Fat

Fat may have been the biggest boon for man during evolution (see prior animal pharm: humans as marine-based carnivores). Fat contained omega-3s concentrated up the food chain from green chlorophyll sources (grass, algae, etc) and into the muscle fat, organ meats, brains and fat stores of animals and seafood. The encephalization of ancient man is believed to be highly associated with the intake of dietary omega-3s. Perhaps the current de-encephalization over the last 100 yrs is related to the relative deficiency of dietary omega-3s? Or growing overabundance of omega-6s? THANK YOU VERY MUCH corn-fed cows and Keys.




Fat Yields the Most Energy in Human/Mammalian Energy Systems

Hormones for MOBILIZING fat stores far out number the hormones that ACCUMULATE fat. See diagram, modified from Gary Taubes GCBC from a 1965 table of hormonal regulation. Forgive me I use the term 'hormone' loosely because food is hormonal. Fatty acids bind PPAR receptors. We have ~ 3-4 routes to produce energy (some cells utilize glutamine, but I don't know which... neurons only?). Burning fatty acids yields the highest net energy unit (ATP). Why I've wondered? So many hormones promote the escape of fatty acids from temporary storage -- intramuscular, liver, visceral fat, brown fat and subcutaneous fat. Why do we readily release fatty acid energy? Sex, power, survival/suicide? Heat for 37C?

Taubes quoted Hans Krebs who received the Nobel in Medicine in 1953 'All three major constituents of food supply carbon atoms.. for combustion." GNG= gluconeogenesis (glucose/glycogen from any source -- protein, fat, carbs); ATP lesson (click HERE and UCD Lecture and med biochem):



Low Yield but Mandatory Without Oxygen
--anaerobic glycolytic (glucose/GNG) [Yield: 2 ATP]


High Yield in the Presence of Oxygen
--aerobic glycolytic (glucose/GNG) [Yield: 38 ATP] 
--aerobic beta-oxidation of fatty acids like palmitate [Yield: 129 ATP]
--aerobic beta-oxidation of fatty acids like stearate [Yield: 146 ATP]
--aerobic beta-oxidation of fatty acids like ketones [Yield: 51 ATP]
--aerobic oxidation of alcohol [Yield: 16 ATP]


Carbon lengths:
Glucose: 6-carbon carb
Palmitate: 16-carbon saturated fatty acid
Stearate: 18-carbon saturated fatty acid
Ketones (b-oh-butyrate, Ac-Acetate): 4 carbon fatty acid
Alcohol: 2-carbon 'the fourth food group' *haa* tequila is paleo, no?

Prior animal pharm: Palmitate Utilized Between Meals




Mitochondrial Medicine

Where does all this high energy production occur? Of course. Your mitochondria (the lower-net-energy anaerobic pathway is independent of mitochondria, occurs in the cytoplasma).

So. Don't scr*w up your mitochondria. That's like jacking your ride. Blowing out your carburetor.

...FLUNKING your human SMOG TEST.

Mitochondrial medicine is a new field but old premises still apply. The paleo evolutionary paradigm for which your mitochondria and DNA were perfected and honed over 2.5M years of natural and sexual selection are what we believe optimize health and maximize vitality.

Adrenal Fatigue and Jimmy Moore's LLVLC Podcast

Beautiful People
Courtesy Youtube.com

Jimmy's Moore's LLVLC Podcast!

I did Jimmy Moore's podcast! And joined the beautiful people... We initially had some technical (cough cough Chinese (?saturated broadband/censorship)) difficulties which required EIGHT ATTEMPTS, but it's complete. I think Jimmy let out a BIG gentlemanly sigh of relief. Jimmy talked also about his latest and pending labs, the idea for the next epic post on sustainable, local farming/livestock and his thoughts on heavy metal chelation, which I am really REALLY into.

I was/am Jimmy, hormonally. Like Jimmy I have been stubbornly challenged with regaining and relosing 10-20% of my body weight in the last few years after the initial epic loss of 50 lbs (Jimmy, ~180 lbs).(!!!!frustr-WTF-ating!!!!)

At the worst, my hormone signatures might resemble what Jimmy reported (if I actually measured):
-- high rT3, unstable cortisol, leptin resistance, insulin resistance
-- estrogen dominance
-- wacko FSH/LH (like a menopausal 'menopot')
-- testosterone/thyroid/adrenal deficiencies



Massive Endocrine Disruption (x3), Weight Re-Gains and Reversal

I wish that the Paleolithic Diet was enough. It's not. Paleo is emphatically not enough for decades of neolethal disease and accumulated damages on our biochemical pathways, adipose storage and mitochondrial health (modern toxins -- omega-6, seed oils, pharmaceuticals, dental amalgams, AMA sanctioned mercury laden vaccines, industrial solvents, new house and carpeting 'gas off', bromide antifungals on food, in California ubiquitous flame retardants, etc).

My problem was 5-10 lbs yo-yo wt gains and yo-yo losses over the last few years after the initial 50 lb loss, which I attribute to MASSIVE endocrine disruptions (three times). The first hormone dyscrasia involved the Mirena IUD (levonorgestrel, a potent fake/mimicker of progesterone), then followed by adrenal fatigue with the popular intermittent fasting and ketosis, and lastly gut dysbiosis with mercury and metal toxicity (tetanus shot, accumulation of annual flu shots/vaccines, and a drilled on titanium dental implant). What helped me after multiple episodes of adrenal fatigue including one after moving to Shanghai, China was a high carb (150-200 g/day) non-paleo 'adrenal reset' modeled by Diana Schwarzbein MD in her book 'The Schwarzbein Principle II'.

It worked.

My daily consumption of low and high GI foods went up (rice, meat/vegs, ice cream, chocolate) and carbs totalled 150-200 grams daily, most days. It worked; I gained 8-10 lbs of fat and my adrenals stabilized. More importantly the serum insulin ECLIPSED the serum cortisol which was high/inappropriate due to various factors (stress from transcontinental moving, circadian shifts from jet lag, gut dysbiosis, metal toxicity, etc). Similar plans are in the blogosphere (high carb Bulletproof, PHD, Masterjohn, Kresser, high carb MDA, high carb GAPS (fruit+honey), Ray Peat, high carb Archevore, 4-Hour Body Slow Carb, Matt Stone). Many individuals have kevlar adrenals and perfectly execute IF/ketosis whilst hiking twenty mountain tops sans food, fasting. NEARLY BAREFOOT. (Asclepius and J. Stanton) But the rest of us are mere mortals.

Successful ketosis requires adequately timed and sufficiently secreted (and appropriately down-regulated) cortisol and adrenaline (NE, EPI).

Someday... I'll re-grow my kevlar and bulletproof organs... *haa ahaaa!*

However after getting tired (and frustrated) with the 8-10 lbs of weight gain, I finished the Schwarzbein 'adrenal reset' and easily transitioned to a high carb Kruse 'leptin reset'. I did attempt the Kruse leptin reset with 100g/day (50 g carbs in the morning) but it didn't work the first few times until AFTER I had gained 8-10 lbs on the Schwarzbein 'reset'. I dunno why this was the case. Recently I returned to a stable LC (paleo) + rice + workouts (which worked for my initial 50 lbs fat loss; 50-100 grams carbs/day) and lost a few kilograms in the last month and half.




Adrenal Resets are Leptin Resets IMHO And Vice Versa

The beauty of the Kruse 'reset' is that imho it is also an 'adrenal reset' (and vice versa). Notwithstanding, I believe for many who are adrenally challenged and severely metabolically damaged (like in cases of metal toxicity, environmental toxicity or former vegetarians, yo-yo dieters, over-trainers, under-eaters, etc), the value of an extreme high carb reset (150-200 g/day) with (or without) fat gain may be inconceivable and controversial but UNQUESTIONABLY HIGH if all else fails... Per Schwarzbein, she reports for some extremely metabolically damaged folks two years on the program are mandatory. For me apparently 2 months was ok and sufficient. To safeguard, FYI I still avoid all ketosis, VLC (very low carb) and IF'ing (intermittent fasting). I continue to consume 1/4 to 1/2 tsp Real salt (Utah Redmonds) and maximally play/nap/laugh as much as I can. Adaptogens, liver/GI support, getting morning sunlight, slow BSS/burn, and 'oxygenizing' (employing slow-twitch muscles) without driving excessive cortisol squirts are unbelievably key to staying on track for me. Also my carbs are substantially higher on workout days (100-150 grams wholly based on glycolytic activity and stress) and the weight is still going down without triggering the adrenals.




Heavy Metal Toxicity and Chelation

Jimmy and I talked about chelation and our thoughts; my family and I are still chelating as it requires a minimum of 6-12 months time. I don't endorse many products but this is one I exceptionally fancy because I find it to be safe, gentle, and gradual; the product has been used for over 10 years in physician and practitioners' offices: ExtendedHealth's oral chelator.




More info on Adrenal 'Resets' and Hormones (T, E1 E2 E3, DHEA-S, Preg, P, Cortisol, Leptin, FT4 FT3 rT3):

• Pretty in Primal: Adrenal Fatigue


• Integrative hormone approach Case Study in insulin resistance and identifying inflammation causes By Dr. Alicia Stanton, Chief Medical Officer of BodyLogicMD


• Another integrative medicine approach to thyroid and adrenal insufficiency (Paul Reller, L.Ac.) - he reports 80% of sluggish thyroids (hypometabolism) is co-related to adrenal insufficiency


• Charles Poliquin (integrative practitioner, instructor, elite athlete trainer): Top 10 Rules for Carbohydrate Intake for OPTIMAL Body Composition (depends on glycolytic physicality and activity)


• Jack Kruse MD: Leptin Reset and Post-Leptin Reset


• The intrepid brainiacs at the Paleohacks.com on Adrenal Function: 'adrenal' tag


• WAPF blogger, Wise Traditions presenter Kaayla Daniel PhD CCN with Galen Knight PhD 'How to avoid toxic metals and clear them from the body'


• Robb's testosterone blogpost 'Paleo and Testosterone' biohacking


• Chris Espinosa, blogger at robbwolf.com, xfitter and Poliquin-certified, Testosterone Part II and Estrogen Balance


• Jack Kruse MD: Hormone Cascade 101 (Testosterone/E, Cortisol/Adrenal, Thyroid) , Gut and Hormones, and Adrenal/Adaptogens

The LLVLC Show (Episode 520): Jeff O’Connell’s ‘Sugar Nation’ And ‘Animal Pharm’ Blogger Dr. B G


The topics in our e-coffeetalk (from Jimmy's site)...

• The infectiousness of her e-mail writing style
• Her work in a plant biology lab that showed she hated research
• The love/hate relationship she has with the USDA
• The one-year residency she did working in geriatrics
• The certified diabetes education that she pursued
• Her hesitancy to start blogging with so many great bloggers
• Her contributions to the PaleoHacks.com web site
• The “chronic cardio” she believes is right for her
• The slow rate of weight loss she experienced (50 pounds in 5 years)
• How Keith Norris has a “Zen-like charm” about him
• What her experience was like at the Ancestral Health Symposium
• The important message of Dr. Andreas Eenfeldt in Sweden
• How Aaron Blaisdell and Brent Pottenger are changing the world
• Recollections of past interviews with Gary Taubes
• The positive contributions Taubes has made to the low-carb cause
• How the Dietary Guidelines are making Americans sicker
• The autoimmune issues she and her siblings dealt with growing up
• How even some grass-fed beef can taste a little “off”
• The “scary” nature of finding real food in China
• Whether America would have been successful without carbs
• Her take on the “safe starches” debate that’s happening right now
• The great admiration she has for Dr. Robert Su
• How there are plenty of Asians who get “sick” eating white rice
• How she “completely burned out my adrenals” on intermittent fasting
• Why some people have issues that make it more difficult to get healthy
• The high-carb adrenal resets that need to have for many people
• Why you have to have balance with all of your hormones
• Her weight gain from heavy metal toxicity
• What the future of her “Animal Pharm” concept is
• The book she is writing with her sister on gut health with recipes
• Why she wants to open up a gluten-free cafe to teach cooking
• Her desire for us to outsource the Low-Carb Cruise to China

Dietary Carb 20-40 grams/day To Control BG

BG = Battlestar Galactica... *ha* j/k

BG = Blood Glucose

I loathe giving a limit to dietary carbohydrate intake but I get a lot questions regarding this.



Ideal Carb Intake for the Metabolically Challenged

20 to 40 grams daily
(with carb cycling 40 - 80 g on rare days -- to replenish glycogen after full depletion)

Why? This works, for broken metabolism.


Broken Metabolism

Carb intake for those with 'broken metabolism' like myself who used to carry 50 lbs of fat previously require meticulous and vigilant control of dietary carbohydrates and maintenance of basal metabolic rates via exercise. For us, carbs, fructose and omega-6 signal 'INSTANT' hibernation (fat gain, impaired immunity, sdLDL, low HDLs, autoimmunity, poor gut-brain axis). INFLAMMATION.

Why?

It is the Winterization v. Over-Summerization concept where our bodies are furtively storing for the winter that never comes. The adipose organ is damaged and continues to believe it is fulminant fat-storage time, not fat-burning time. Prior nephropal: Phat Fat Accumulation versus Mobilization

20 to 40 grams per day is an amount that helps to control insulin, BG (blood glucose) and improves body fat recompositon. Yes -- improves sdLDL (small dense LDL) and Lp(a) as well and allows subcutaneous and visceral fat regression, regression of vascular calcifications (e.g. plaque, hypertension), prevention of senility (Alzheimer's also known as Type 3.0 Diabetes), cancer protection and overall optimal health and lifespan (and an X-image *wink*). Carb cycling (+resistance training/exercise) prevents long-term reduction in basal metabolism as well as maintains enough subcutaneous fat. Under the skin fat, subcutaneous, is brown GLORIOUS fat which provides the youthful, X-image, in all the right places. Without brown fat we can get excessively saggy, droopy, wrinkly skin folds. (also that just takes TIME to tighten up after dramatic weight loss... like 18-24 months... sorry) Intermittent ketosis (intermittent fasting and ketogenic diets) improve insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion. Ketosis is like a cheat... simulates a negative energy balance (as carbs are taken out of the picture). We are built to be ketotic and use the prime fuel of our mammalian systems: fatty acids and ketones. Newbornes are ketotic the first 2 weeks of life as the maternal colostrum and milk are coming in.


What the h*ll are carbs?
Anything your tongue perceives as sweet (including fruit) or starchy.

Use Nutritiondata.com for help. Do note their reported servings sizes which are often not typical. Take into account in the calculations. Fitday.com is good as well I've heard.

Examples of 15 grams of carbs:
--1/3 cup oat bran (i.e. 2 bites and I have a big MOUTH; this raises my BG in 5-10min to 150-180 g/dl. No SH*T)
--palm-size orange, apple, banana (the worst due to starchiness), grapes, CUTEYS
--1/3 cup brown or white rice (doesn't matter they ALL raise BG)
--candy -- 1 bite
--ice cream 1/2 cup (not as huge a BG rise due to fat buffering effect from full cream)
--1 cup of milk (doesn't matter if low fat or full fat)
--1/3 to 1/2 cup juice or reg soda (depends on brand and HFCS content)
--1/3 cup pasta
--1 slice bread (rice bread is worse due to higher density)
--1/2 cup mashed potatoes




BG Mini Curve: Monitoring

Do you have a glucometer? The blood glucose curves for cats are better done than for humans IMHO (see diagram, courtesy of Vetsulin). Consider doing a 'mini curve' examining the effects of dietary carbs and combinations of food and lifestyle effects (exercise, intermittent fasting, STRESS STRESS, sleep deprivation, resistance/weight training, etc). Consider monitoring closely and tightly from 5-15min after food and additionally 30 v. 60 v. 45 v. 60 v. 90 min after food.

Feline 'mini curve'
Remember Ai M's study on carb loading v. fat loading and the insulin effects? Click here: insulin and aging. The same curve can be superimposed for dietary carbohydrates -- blood glucose rises within 5-10 minutes of a carb load. If I consume (depending on the time of the month and how much exercise I'm doing), my sugars can climb and peak to 180 mg/dl easily with 1 cup of rice in less than 10 minutes. And... I generally feel cr*ppy for the rest of the day (flushed, fast heart rate, hypersensitive).

When a diabetic patient has a hypoglycemic reaction (low glucose < 60 mg/dl; signs and symptoms include sweating, hot flash, tremor/shakes, fast heart rate, irritability, anxiety, palpitations, hunger, tunneling vision, headache/migraine), a glucose source will generally start to raise the blood glucoses within 5 to 10 minutes. Usually only medications lower the glucose so significantly (insulin or an oral drug, e.g. glyburide, glipizide, Amaryl). Exercise + medications is a potent combination. Exercise for some individuals is equivalent to 10 to 20 units of insulin.

What are goal glucoses? Why are they elevated in the first place? Adrenal insufficiency (which is associated with reactive hypoglycemia)? Untreated, undiagnosed hypothyroidism? Excessive carb intake? Lack of resistance training? Sarcopenia? Lack of exercise? Sleep deprivation? Excessive mental stress?

Fix these first then consider focusing on BG.

Here is the relationship between HgbA1c and average glucoses (click HERE) -- written by a fan of Dr. Bernstein's , a patient educator and advocate who has an A1c of 4.7% and is a Type 1 diabetes patient himself and medical physician.

Goals stated previously (HERE): HgbA1c < 5.0%

Glucoses > 140 mg/dl are associated with AGEs RAGEs and other glycosylation products and damage, including diabetic complications (kidney, eyes, nerves, brain, blood vessels, erectile dysfunction, hormone dysregulation, endocrine glands, etc).

We are not M&Ms. Don't sugar-coat yourselves.

Ultimate goal for health: as normal as possible (flat curve at 97 mg/dl or lower)


Success Stories

See prior paleo CAC success stories achieved with low carb, high sat fat Paleo or 'Dai-leo'(update Jimmy Moore and Scott have zero plaque): My Paleo Peeps With High HDLs

Mr. Billy E is my HERO! Reversed CHF, chronic kidney disease, Type 2 Diabetes (T2D), dyslipidemia (high TG, low HDLs) and hypertension on low carb, high sat fat Paleo. Click HERE and HERE Look what happened on the way back to the cave.



Control of BG, Insulin, and Leptin
Stephan has articulately enlightened on leptin ( still I just don't completely get it yet... coz I'm a ding-dong). Leptin appears to be the long-term messenger for energy balance, reproduction and control of hunger and certain behaviors...
Wholehealthsource: Leptin
Excellently expressed and illuminating insulin resources which have helped me in my understandingof the hormone cascades are below. Though I have a CDE, certified diabetes educator 'credential', these broadened my knowledge by a ~milllion-fold... because... I admit *blechVOMIT* I used to be a card-carrying ADA member.
-Dr. Guyenet (Stephan) at WholeHealthSource: Body Set Point series, Paleo Diet series, Low carb diets, Fatty Liver, Visceral Fat, Omega-6/Fructose, Butyrate, etc
-Drs. Mary and Mike Eades: ProteinPower books
-Dr. Harris at PāNu: How to lose weight and Get Started
-Dr. McGuff of Body By Science: Internal Starvation and Especially for Women

Robert McLeod's thoughts on insulin and other hormones are what I have been thinking about for a while and what I have found personally to work for lifestyles. I would agree and concur on all his 13 points.

Entropy Production: Hormone posts by Robert McLeod (I consolidated)

INSULIN, GHRELIN
1. Very long and very slow exercise (4+ hrs), typically hiking or cycling in my case. This is a far cry from the type of anaerobic-limit cardio exercise one typically sees recommended, for example, by the American Heart Association. There is a yawning gulf between walking and jogging. I personally approve of anaerobic exercise, such as sprint intervals or plyometrics.

2. Consistently eat carbohydrates at a low enough level that the brain (which prefers glucose over ketones) consumes the entirety of carbohydrates that you eat, leaving the body to burn ketones. This is a slow process.

3. Periodically fast for an extended period of time so that your basal metabolism burns through your glycogen reserve and then begins to mobilize fat. This is not a calorie reduction method, rather you are simply not eating three times a day (on average), and as such having more extremely calories negative and calorie positive periods.

GROWTH HORMONE
4. Get adequate sleep. GH production spikes during sleep. Try not to eat before bedtime.

5. Fast occasionally, for relatively short durations.

6. Conduct intense exercise. Don't eat before or during your exercise.

PALEO PRINCIPLES
7. Control appetite hormones like gherlin by eating regular, satiating meals. By satiating I mean protein, fat, and fibre. Try to avoid snacking.

8. Restrict fructose and alcohol consumption to reasonable levels, day-to-day. 20 g/day of both combined would be a very healthful level, 50 g/day is I think an upper bound for people with healthy livers.

9. Eliminate industrial, refined oils, particularly refined polyunsaturates such as soy and canola oil. Go for fresh and high quality fats, in particular clarified butter, extra-virgin coconut oil, extra-virgin olive oil, and the fats from animals fed their native diet. Unstable oils should be stored in the refrigerator or freezer to prevent them from going rancid, e.g. Omega-3 fish oil capsules. Most industrial oils are deodorized to prevent you from smelling when they go bad.

10. Eat more than just muscle meat from an animal. Have you eaten liver pate or roasted heart lately? Bone broth?

11. Fast occasionally for approximately 24-hours to give your liver a break and restore insulin sensitivity. Many religious groups noted for their good health (i.e. Seventh-day Adventists, Mormons, and the Greek-Orthodox of Crete and Corfu) regularly fast — is the the shared common trait. Fasting and starving are not the same thing, don't conflate the two.

12. Go on elimination dietary trials of the common food allergies: wheat (including barley and rye), cow dairy, legumes, especially soy and peanuts, tree nuts, eggs, fish, and shellfish. Test assays may be insufficient to recognize many of the idiopathic problems (i.e. autoimmunity, neurological disorders) that these types of food may induce. It took me six months wheat-free to get better.

13. Supplement with Vitamin D, on the order of 1000 IU/12 kg of body mass per day. Consider that the recommended doses for infants are 400 IU/day, so if you mass ten-times that of an infant, you need ten-times as much vitamin D; recommended adult doses are a joke. Also consider that you produce about 10,000 IU/ 30 minutes in full-sun. Vitamin D is not a vitamin, it is the precursor material to most of the steroid hormones in your body. When the endocrine (hormone) system has adequate signaling compounds, the whole body works better.

Leptin and Leptin Resistance

Dr. A's post is eye-opening. Mastering Leptin book report (but note her '????'s where I think she politely says wtf)

Factors that shut our brain off to messages like leptin and therefore raise leptin resistance and impair transport of leptin across the blood-brain-barrier are non-paleo foods and lifestyles:
--excessive fructose
--maternal magnesium deficiency (epigenetic changes in rats)
--dairy fats (?unfermented A1 casein)
--lectins (grains, oats, corn, legumes, soy, peanuts) -- (unsoaked seeds and nuts too -- these are fattening if excessive!)
--screwed up gut-brain axis
--lack of sustained 2-4 hr exercise and/or resistance training
--factors that induce hypertriglyceridemia: omega-3 deficiency, excessive carbohydrate diets, sedentary lifestyle, synthetic hormones (progestins, endocrine disruptors, Teflon, pesticides, bisphenol, etc), estrogen/vitaminD/testosterone/DHEA deficiencies
--deficiency of saturated fatty acids (short- medium- long-chain)
--excess omega-6 and/or deficiency of omega-3
--high cortisol (stress, endurance train/events, poor sleep)
--starvation (excessive intermittent fasting, hypocaloric diets)
--gender (females more affected, esp with all factors listed above)
--genetic programming (epigenetic influences -- stressors: drought, famine, protein-restriction)